Divorce and Its Effects on Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Divorce and Its Effects on Children - Essay Example Moreover, the divorced group report given that extra emotional and active caregiving and experiencing additional unfairness in their families of origin than did the non-divorced group, though the result for emotional caregiving was reasonable by temporal perspective (Carlile, C. 2001, 232-234). Furthermore, proof that difficult form of parentification in children of divorce carry on into late adolescence and young adulthood has insinuation for models of sympathetic and serving these children and their families. A rising number of researchers have turned their concentration to the dynamics of post-divorce families. In one of the initial studies in this region, many experts discovered that parent/child associations in divorced single-parent households are frequently collaterally rather than hierarchically prearranged (Crosbie-Burnett, M., 2000, 286-293). The children suppose a "junior partner" role. Though this role come into view to foster sovereignty and adulthood in the older children, predominantly if their earlier developmental wants had been met, it be inclined to suffering lots of the younger children in the sample. If we analyzed then we come to know that longitudinal observations of dissimilar groups of divorced families, experts afterward shed additional light on the developmental risks of the postdivorce family infrastructure. According to expert analysis that as a result of disrupted and reducing parenting occasioned by marital ending, lots of children are "overburdened" for years by such farm duties as attending to the psychological desires of the parents or the family as a whole. The chronological constancy of parentification linked with matrimonial conflict and stop working has also not been examined. Moreover, in light of clinical surveillance that the parentification procedure in divorced families make bigger well into adolescence, it is credible that unhelpful parentification, chiefly of an emotional genre, continues to typify the family relations of older children of divorce (Davies, P. T., 2002, 124-139). No doubt, questions regarding the ethicality and importance of parentification in divorced families were scrutinize in this study as part of a better exploration of this process in couple associations. Particularly, perceptions of the degree and fairness of past and nearby caregiving of late adolescent and young adult children of divorce were compared to those of a nondivorced group. In addition to the effect of divorce, sex dissimilarity were discovered. further potentially confounding variables were statistically controlled. The frequencies of dissimilar forms of unhelpful parentification in the divorced and non-divorced groups were also contrast. Method Participants To obtain results one-hundred-and-ninety-one psychology undergraduates at great public urban universities were recruited to contribute in a study on couple and family dealings. All participants were necessary to be in an association of at least 6-months duration. Their partners, 26.44% of whom did not be present at college, were also employing bringing the total N to 382.Moreover, to evaluate questions pertaining to the association of parentification to parental divorce, participants whose parents moreover divorced earlier than middle adolescence (14 years of age) or never divorced were chosen from

Letter to senate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Letter to senate - Essay Example As a senator, if you choose to support the idea it would be very close to committing political suicide. It is strongly suggested that you vote against the notion of a national ID card. The supporters of the national ID card may suggest that it would decrease the chances of terrorism and would make official government business easier to conduct. However, it must be understood that terrorism is not prevented by easily falsified documents (no matter how difficult to duplicate they may be). It is stopped by effective security measures and the sacrifices made by hardworking men and women out to stop it with positive intelligence gathering and old fashioned detective work. On the issue of making matters easier for the government bureaucracy, identity itself is currently verified in all instances where it needs to be done. Adding another layer or requirement to identity documents would only complicate matters while being a significant expense for the government that tries to issue cards to millions of Americans. Overall, having a national ID card is not only an unworkable idea, it is also a dangerous one in political as well as social terms as it would create a lot of difficulties for those who demand the simplest of rights to their privacy i.e. the right to be left alone (Garrett, 2001). A senator who values the rights of the people would certainly vote against any such plans to impose a document which does nothing to improve matters but does a lot to harm anyone who desires not to be engaged in

Professional development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Professional development - Essay Example Part 2 (1) Reflection on the nature of professionalism required in chosen career The chosen career is related to the management consultancy; the nature of professionalism required in the specific career will be depended on the following criteria: a) the personal skills and capabilities – as revealed through appropriately customized self-assessment questionnaires and through the feedback of colleagues and friends; b) the conditions of the target market, meaning the requirements set by employers for the specific job position, as these requirements have been identified though job adverts and the websites of organizations supporting the professional development of employees in the particular industry and c) the responses of the environment, as they have been estimated by reviewing relevant literature. In any case, reference should be made primarily to professionalism, as a framework that can influence the performance on the chosen career. In accordance with a definition published by the Oxford Dictionary online, the term professionalism is used in order to show â€Å"the competence or skill expected of a professional: the key to quality and efficiency is professionalism† (Oxford Dictionary online, 2011). In the chosen career, professionalism is expected to have certain form, which will be related to a series of different criteria, such as values, ethics, attitude, knowledge and so on. These criteria/ elements of professionalism can be identified primarily through the literature published in the particular field. Then, additional evidence can be used in order to verify the effectiveness of the literature findings – referring to the studies focusing on the examination and the evaluation of professionalism as a key element for the successful performance of individuals in the workplace. It should be noted that the term ‘professionalism’ in consultancy might include different elements and respond to different needs compared to other car eer paths (Rhoton et al. 2001). In any case, the professional development cannot be completed before the entrance in the workplace; this means, that the period of study and training – as a preparatory phase before applying for a particular position – cannot fully support the professional development of an individual (Hristozova, 2006). Through another approach Scott (2000) made clear that professional development is continuous, being similar to the self-development which is likely to be continuous; thus, professional development, as an aspect of self-development, need also to be continuous securing the improvement of the employee’s position within his organization. The skills of consultants, which would help them to develop a high level of professionalism, can be retrieved through the literature published on the specific field. In accordance with Margerison (2011, p.31) the key advantage of consultants would be the self-organizing, i.e. their ability to categori ze and appropriately evaluated the material related to a specific social/ scientific area (see Table 1, Appendix). On the other hand, Niewiem (2005) noted that the most important skill of consultants would be their interaction ability (meaning the ability to communicate with others and use appropriate evidence for

Trying To Sell An IPod Essay Example for Free

Trying To Sell An IPod Essay Have you ever ridden a bus or the train feeling bored without no one to talk to and wishing that you were listening to something good? Have you ever got on a car or other public transport vehicle or went to a public place where the music that is playing is somewhat not your preference and you wished that you could somehow change the station? Have you ever heard your favorite music playing and wished that you could turn the dial up so that you could enjoy it more? Well wish no more because with an iPod you can do all these things and so much more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With todays busy and noisy world, every person tries to find a place where they can find peace to be able to concentrate and do what they have to do. This can be hard, which is why a lot of people choose to â€Å"lose† themselves in the world of music with their music players. Also, music most definitely kills boredom. There are a lot of times where you find yourself waiting in line without no one to talk to or waiting for someone to arrive and you find yourself standing there looking like an idiot without nothing to do. Other times you find yourself staring at those people with their own music players who looks like they are enjoying what they are hearing and it makes you want to listen to what they are listening to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Digital music players are such popular devices right now because they make music and other files manageable and portable. You can see almost every teenager and young adults bobbing their heads with the beat of their music from their players. Adults also use this to play music, store files, and do other things like podcasting. â€Å"Podcasting are digital media files, such as audio or video, which are produced in a series† (Bertucci â€Å"What is Podcasting?†). Aside from listening to music, students can also find that an iPod has many other uses. An iPod can be used as a course content dissemination tool, recording tool, support tool, or a file storage and transfer (â€Å"Duke University iPod First Year Experience Final Evaluation Report†).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   So you think that you do not need an iPod? Let me tell you why you should change your mind. There are a lot of digital music players out in the market today; however, they are all basically the same because they are all capable of playing music in different formats. So why iPod in particular? The first thing that a consumer looks for is quality. With an iPod, there is no need to worry because its producer, which is Apple, is a very trusted brand when it comes to technology (Evans â€Å"Apple Most Trusted US Brand†). The iPod series are very simple yet show a class of its own that not many companies can not produce. You can find whatever kind of player you need because every player that Apple produces fits every individuals needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Apple offers the iPod shuffle, iPod nano, iPod classic, and iPod touch. For those with limited budget and could settle for a memory that can hold only about 240 songs, an iPod shuffle is the best choice. The 1GB shuffle only costs $49 while the newer model with 2GB is at $69 (â€Å"iPod shuffle†). It comes in a variety of colors and with its size, no one will have any problem carrying it around. The iPod classic is probably the best choice among all the iPod products. At $249, it boasts of 160GB storage capability and a sleek design (â€Å"iPod classic†). This is enough to store all your favorite music or albums, as well as photos and podcasts, and other files that you need to carry around. An iPod is something for both the average consumer and the techies. It is simple to use and files can be stored with just a few steps yet it offers so much more to those who would like to take advantage of its full services. If money is not an issue for you and you are always on the go, then an iPhone may be the best to offer. It doubles as an iPod and a cellphone so that there is no need to carry two devices at one time. Having an iPhone lessens the probability that you might lose the other or both because you have too many things in your hand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Imagine life without music. This will be what your life would be like without an iPod. It can become sad, boring, and quiet. Without it, you will be able to hear every other noise there is in the world, which will make it hard to concentrate. Another great thing about an iPod is that it can be a social tool. It can become something to talk about between friends or colleagues. It can be added to the long list of topics that guys can use to talk about with the girls they like. For girls, it can be something to do while trying to ignore a guy you do not want to talk to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many people argue that the iPod has become too commercial and the individuality is lost all together. However, people should realize and keep in mind that this is bound to happen because of its success. Other music players do not do well on the market simply because they can not beat the iPods features and looks. With its affordable price and unbeatable features, why would you settle for anything less? Everyone owning an iPod does not matter because what it does for you is more important. Works Cited Bertucci, Brian. â€Å"What is Podcasting?† About.com. 14 April 2008.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://podcasting.about.com/od/basics101/a/whatis.htm â€Å"Duke University iPod First Year Experience Final Evaluation Report.† June 2005. 14 April   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2008 cit.duke.edu/pdf/reports/ipod_initiative_04_05.pdf Evans, Jonny. â€Å"Apple Most Trusted US Brand.† Macworld. 17 May 2007. 14 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.macworld.co.uk/news/index.cfm?RSSnewsID=18062 â€Å"iPod classic.†Ã‚   Apple. 14 April 2008 http://www.apple.com/ipodclassic/ â€Å"iPod shuffle.† Apple. 14 April 2008 http://www.apple.com/ipodshuffle/

Theoretical Views of Intelligence

Theoretical Views of Intelligence Compare and Contrast Two Theoretical Views of Intelligence Gardner Multiple Intelligence Theory and Sternberg Successful Intelligence Theory The two theoretical views of intelligence that are going to be focused on in this assignment are the Howard Gardners multiple intelligence theory and Robert J. Sternbergs successful intelligence theory. Gardners multiple intelligences theory suggested different systems in the brain produce different types of intellectual capacities to approach problems and create products. He identified eight competencies and two tentative competencies, but allows that more may be discovered. These include linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, spiritual and existential intelligences (Gardner, 1993). Linguistic intelligence involves verbal aptitude which sensitive to written and spoken languages, the capability to learn languages, and the ability to use language to reach certain goals. Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the abstract reasoning skill to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composing, appreciation of musical patterns and playing instrument. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the pot ential of using ones whole body or parts of the body to solve problems, control fine and gross motor. Spatial intelligence recognises and uses the patterns of wide space, visualize objects, and find ones orientation. Interpersonal intelligence consists of the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to understand own thoughts and feelings, fears and motivations, consequences and thus make effective changes. Sternberg successful theory of intelligence are defined as in a given sociocultural context, mental abilities are used to reach ones goals in life through adaptation, selection and shaping of the environment (Sternberg Kaufman, 1998, p. 494). The three broad distinct areas associated with successful intelligence are analytical, creative, and practical thinking. Analytical intelligence is the mental steps to solve problems, creative intelligence is th e mental processes that lead to solutions, ideas, artistic forms, theories, products that are unique and novel (Reber Reber, 2001) and practical intelligence is the ability to size up new situation and adapt to real-life demands. Within the above theories, logical mathematical intelligence and analytical intelligence will be compared and contrasted. Firstly, definition of both theories will be compared. Then, both theories supported that the logical mathematic and analytical ability are educable, and lastly, Logical mathematical intelligence is the ability to reason, to calculate, to recognise patterns and to handle logical thinking (Gardner, 1993). In Howard Gardners words, it includes the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically and it is often related with scientific and mathematical thinking. Analytical intelligence is the capacity to analyze and evaluate ideas, compare and contrast, solve problems and make decisions (Sternberg, 1998) Like a number of scholars, Gardner and Sternberg view intelligence as educable, result of biological end environmental factors, which includes peoples environments (Ceci, Nightungale, Baker, 1992). Another is ones motivation (Collier, 1994; Sternberg Wagner, 1994) and training (Feuerstein, 1980). References Gardner, Howard (1983; 1993) Frames of Mind: The theory of multiple intelligence (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. Smith, Mark K. (2002, 2008) Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences, the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved Aug 10, 2009, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm. Sternberg, R. J. ( 1996 ). Cognitive psychology. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Sternberg, R. J (1998). Journal of Principles of Teaching for Successful Intelligence, 33, 65-69. Retrieved Sept 10, 2009, from questia database.

Scientology Essay example -- essays research papers

Scientology is a fairly new religion. Founded in the twentieth-century by a man by the name of L. Ron Hubbard. He began his studies long ago and wrote a book in 1950 called Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. He claimed that this book was one of the first tools used to solve the problems of the mind. This book focused on irrational mind, war, crime, and insanity. Mr. Hubbard designed this book so that anyone can use it to improve oneself. He did not stop at Dianetics, however, he felt that there were still some issues that had to be addressed. He was now going to try to figure out the nature of the human being, what makes up our â€Å"being.† Mr. Hubbard combined religion, philosophy, and his theory of dianetics and came up with Scientology. Mr. Hubbard had a unique life. He was born in Tilden, Nebraska, the son of a naval commander Harry Ross Hubbard and Ledora May Hubbard. L. Ron Hubbard was born on March 13, 1911. When he was about two his family moved to Montana where he learned to be a rough western cowboy. His mother was thoroughly educated woman. She taught him how to read and write at an early age. L. Ron Hubbard was said to have an avid interest in life at an early age. When his father’s naval career required that they move away from Montana, his mother was responsible to teach him the schooling he missed. When Ron was twelve the family moved to Seattle, Washington. Ron got the liberty to be associated with many different types of people such as the Blackfoot Indians, Beijing magician, Chinese magicians, and studying Buddhists. He enrolled at George Washington University, his father put him into mathematics and engineering. Now he learned how to take the scientific approach to solving problems. He became more and more interested in the way the mind works. He would ask the professors at George Washington University and they could not give him an answer, so he came up with the idea that the western culture did not understand a thing about the mind. He believed that it was his duty to explore the mind and to tell the western world how it works. This is when he came up with dianetics and then eventually the religion of scientology. Scientology consists of eight dynamics. With these dynamics, a person realizes that his life extends beyond himself. The first dynamic is â€Å"self.† This teaches you to survive as an individual. Taking care of such thi... ... deal with life here on earth and teaches people how to become better people. Improving conditions here on earth is the foremost important thing to fix. Scientology seems to address this issue with full force. It uses modern technology, and knowledge of how human relations to improve the quality of life of people who chose to follow Scientology. In the description of L. Ron Hubbard, I was disgusted. They made it sound like he was this extremely smart guy. When he started studying the mind and the way it works, he noticed that the western society knew nothing about it. He sounded pompous when he said â€Å"it was very obvious that I was dealing with and living in a culture which knew less about the mind than the lowest primitive tribe I had ever come in contact with†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I did not like this at all. He sounds like a very arrogant man. Arrogant in a cocky way. In doing research I noticed that all of his followers seem to have the same attitude. I find that it is funny that they are so dedicated to following a man who was born in the twentieth-century. He is an ordinary man who happened to be exceptionally smart. He is a business man who is good at persuading people and wants to make money.

Literature Reveiw About Ethics and Organic Food Essay

Since the last ten years, the fastest growing sector in the food industry has been the organic food. Organic food are certified by labels that ensure that they are produced without pesticides and antibiotics and that they preserve the environment with the use of renewable resources (Organic Produce Export Committee, 2002, cited Lea and Worsley, 2005). In France, the AB label ensures that at least 95% of the production is organic and compels the producers to state clearly the origin and the method of production (CSA Agence Bio, 2006). In France in 2006, 43% of the population has consumed organic product at least once a month which corresponds to an increase of 6% since 2003. The growth rate of organic consumption is about 10 percent per year since 1999. (CSA Agence Bio,2006). Abroad, the same phenomena occurs, and organic, even if it represented no more than 3% of total food consumption in Europe (Soil Association 2000, cited in Aarset et al. 2004) appears to be real trend that will growth over time. This mainstream has been strengthening by the BSE scandal and the controversy about the genetically modified food effects. Regarding this postulate, researchers and marketers began to study the organic consumer in the late 90’s. It is very important for food providers to understand why the consumers purchase this new kind of food. In our study, we chose to focus on the determination of consumers’ profiles as well as their motives to act. Most of the studies we discuss emphasized on the determination of consumers profiles in term of socio-demographic factors related to their attitudes or motivation. But we can wonder if those factors are sufficient in order to give a global understanding of the organics buyers. The research problem is here to define which factors influence the organic food consumption, and to understand their inter-relationship in a global context of food consumption. In a first part, we will try to understand the impact on culture on consumption and then the need to look at each country particularly. Then we will discuss the main factors that influence the consumers that is to say: attitudes, values and motivations (combined with socio-demographic factors). Eventually, we will present and analyse the research we decided to base our study on in order to develop the constructs and the propositions of the conceptual framework. 1Market development and cultural factors. 1. 1Culture influences the food choice. The most primary factor that gives a direction to an individual is certainly is culture or region of origin. Solomon (1991, chap 15) defines it as â€Å"a society’s personality†. It’s the sharing among a population of traditions, norms, beliefs and attitudes in one country or in one specific region. Culture is the first socio-demographic factor that would affect the decision to purchase. Socio-demographic factors (Mac Carthy and Perreault, 1990, p79-81) are the dimensions that affect the consumer act of purchase in a specific consumption context. The typical ways to segment and define consumers are presented in the exhibit 1: the socio-demographic factors. Regarding this postulate, we can assume that the behaviour will be different from a country to another. For instance, Aarset et. Al (2004) highlighted that from a country to another, organic products are not seen to be the same even if they are. Thus, they compared the meaning of â€Å"organic† and the perception of labelling system in France, Germany, Norway and UK. The study highlights the fact that these notions are unclear and clouded for the consumer and that different countries perceived them in different ways. The two tables below resume the cross-national comparison: Table 1: The definition of â€Å"organic† in the five countries (Aarset et. al, 2004): France GermanyNorwaySpainUK ?Natural ?Limited Human intervention? High welfare ?Natural ?Environmentally kind? Characterised by confusion and ambivalence ? Natural? Ecological and natural ?Non-use of pesticides ?Not environmentally damaging? freedom from artificial inputs ? limiting environment damage Table 2: The perception of the labelling system: (Aarset et. al, 2004) France GermanyNorwaySpainUK ?Easily duped ?Legislative system required at the EU level ?Aware of â€Å"Bio† label ?Trust the AB system? Spectical consumers ?Unfamiliar with labels ?Limited knowledge of regulations? Sceptical labelling as gimmick ? Limited knowledge of regulations? Labels should reflect quality ? Ignorant about current labels? Limited knowledge of regulations ?Trust government certifications? Should be free from government inputs ? Sceptical ?Unfamiliar ?Limited knowledge of regulations More specially, Beharrel and Mac Fie (1991, cited in Squires et. al, 2001) showed that the motivations and the attitudes towards organic food were country specific. People are influenced by their society and by their way of life inside. Furthermore, longitudinal studies (Douglas and Wildavsky, 1982 and Davies et al. 1995, cited in Squires et. al, 2001) show that behaviour evolves over time. In this way in the first study Irish consumers ranked environmental concerns at the top and four years later, the same concern was equally cited by consumers with health concern (Squires et al. 2001). 1. 2The level of development of the country market influences organic food choice 1. 2. 1A cross- national study of Danish and New-Zealand organic consumers. A cross-national study made by Squires et. al (2001) compares the behaviour of Danish and New-Zealand organic consumer regarding the level of organic food market development. Denmark is considered to be a mature market where organic food products are well implemented and New-Zealand is seen as a novice one. Lampkin (1992, cited in Squires et al. 2001) established that in a mature market, environment is the most important motive to consume organic products. The range, the prices and the availability will also have an impact on sales. The study about Danes and New Zealanders confirms these findings. Thus, New-Zealanders who are health focused, tend to be more heavy consumers of organic food, while for Danes the same motivation appear to be not significant. Environmentally friendly and green consumers are more likely to be heavy consumers of organic food products in Denmark. Finally, the research paper highlights that the macro-environment has an impact. For instance, Danish health and care system is well developed so we can assume that they don’t seek at first to protect their bodies but that they are more focus on environmental concern as Denmark is one of the most â€Å"green country†. Squires et al. (2001) advocates that study should take into account the macro-environment of countries studies as well as the market development concerning the organic food market. The stage of development of the industry in the life-cycle is also a predictor of moderators of organic consumption. These factors should be considered when hypotheses and propositions are made about one specific country and its organic food consumption trends. 1. 2. 2The moderators of consumption depend on the market development Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005) investigated the two major barriers of organic food consumption: the price and the availability of products (Tregear et al, 1994; Magnusson et al. 2001, cited in Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005). The price is a barrier when the product has no special added value for the buyer (Roddy et al. 1996, cited in Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). Generally, the willingness to pay differs from the range of products, for instance 52% of German accept to pay more for fresh products and 34% for animal products like meat ( Meier-Ploeger and Woodward, 1999, cited in Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). A priori, these moderators would have an impact everywhere and would have an influence in the country studied, Finland (Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005). Actually, the hypotheses that the price and availability of products were both rejected by the study. Indeed, the range of products analysed (breads) were not price premium compared to conventional bread. Furthermore, it appears that there is no availability issue and no short supply in Finland as the market is well implemented in this country. If we look at the same factors in Spain, (Sanjuan et al. 2003), it showed that in Spain, the price has a strong impact on the consumption of organic food. Thus, the willingness to pay was below the actual difference between organic and conventional products. It also stated that the willingness to pay was different among different range of products, for example, Spanish are more ready to buy at a price premium if they are considering fresh products. In the same way, a Greek survey (Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002) about purchasing motives and organic food illustrated that the availability of products was the main barriers as the choice and the number of retailers are very limited. As Conclusion, we can state that culture as well as market development are important factors when considering the consumption of organic food. As far as the situation is different country by country, it is interesting to study behaviours in specific situation. Culture and market development are not the only determinants that will influence the behaviour regarding organic products. Socio-demographic factors will also influence the decision making process of organic consumer. These factors can be combined with values, attitudes and/or motivations in order to design different consumer profiles. We the next parts, we will discuss the impact of these determinants in the organic food consumption. 2The attitudes that influence consumer 2. 1Attitudes and the Theory of Planned Behaviour 2. 1. 1Attitudes Attitudes are different from values because they concern objects like a behaviour, a person, an idea or a thing. Attitudes are the expression of the thinking in a precise situation. Attitudes are judged through our values. (Antonides and Raajj, 1998, p. 138). The attitude is central to the model of â€Å"values-attitudes-behaviour† where â€Å"the influence should theoreotically flow from abstract values to mid-range attitudes to specific behaviour† (Homer and Kahle, 1988; cited in Soyoen and Eastlick, 1998). As we will see next, attitudes are central in the context of ethical choices. 2. 1. 2The Theory of Planned Behaviour and consumers ethics 2. 1. 2. 1The presentation of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The theory of reasoned action (TRA), developed Ajzen and Fishbein in 1980, is a value-attitude-behavior’s framework where the objective is to understand which factors would influence the consumer in an ethical context. The model is based on the fact that behaviour is a direct function of Intention where intention is built in function of attitude and subjective norm. Intention to purchase are considering to be good determinant of the behaviour (Honkanen et al. 2006). Furthermore it concerns a rational decision making process where an individual has control. The attitude is made by the sum of individuals’ beliefs and the evaluation of those beliefs. In the same way, the subjective norm is the sum of two elements: -â€Å"individuals beliefs that important to other think they should or not should perform the behaviour question† -â€Å"The motivation to comply with other†. In 1985, Adjzen added a new variable, the perceived behavioural control. This theory is widespread supported by researchers (Ajzen, 1991), but it is stated that additional predictors could be included in the model if there are significant to forecast consumer behaviour. Figure 2 : The theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) 2. 1. 2. 2The relationship between TPB and food choice behaviour. In 1994, Thompson et. al (1998)analyzed the food behaviour with the TPB model in the context of growing consumption of olive oil in United Kingdom. The constructs of perceived behaviour control was removed because Spark et al. (1995, cited in Thompson et. al, 1994) stated that the olive oil usage was not â€Å"significantly impeded†. In this case of olive oil, the model was significant and confirmed that TPB is well adapted to food consumption (Saegert and Young,1983 ; Towler and Shepherd, 1992 : cited in Thompson et. al, 1994). Additionally, the study showed that attitudes is a powerful predictor and explain the major part of the behaviour. It emphasizes that olive consumption is mainly due to the willingness to improve the taste of salad. Furthermore, the subjective norms play a minor role in the model, and reveals to be not significant. This fact is due the low involvement of consumers in the act of eating or drinking. The consumption of organic food is more involved act as it reflects the life-style and the values of an individual. In the next study, we will see that subjective norm plays a key role when it’s integrated in the model as antecedents of attitudes. 2. 2The TPB in the context of organic food consumption 2. 2. 1The importance of subjective norms as antecedents of values. The research conducted by Tarkiainen and Sundqvist (2005) looks at the subjective norms and attitudes that influence the organic food consumption in Finland. As we emphasized previously, the perceived control behaviour as â€Å"price† and availability were found not significant. The most important finding of this study is the integration in the model of subjective norms as an antecedent of attitudes. As we said before, the subjective norms were often viewed as non significant because of the low-involvement in the food and drink consumption. However, Chang (1998), Sherphed and O’Keefe (1984), Shimp and Kavas (1984) and Vallerland et al. (1992) (cited in Tarkiainen and Sundqvist 2005) demonstrated that subjective norms were significant when the decision is related to an ethical context and when there are placed as antecedents of attitudes. The result of the study illustrated the importance of the behaviour in relation with others thinking. Furthermore, the specific attitude took into account in the study that is to say the health consciousness, is not sufficient in order to explain attitudes. The authors advise that further studies should look at several motives/beliefs to explain attitudes as environment concern. The next study we will discuss considers more variables in the model of TPB. 2. 2. 2The multivariate modelling approach of ethical consumer choice. Using the theory of planned behaviour, Shaw and Shiu (2003) explored the important factors that occur in the context of organic food shopping. They proposed a study based on self-interest factors. In this way, they added two constructs in the primary theory: the self-identity and ethical obligation. Ethical obligation refers to ethical beliefs that would represent a person’s beliefs of what is good or bad. Self-identity can be defined as â€Å"the pertinent part of an individual’s self that relates to a particular behaviour† (Shaw and Shiu, 2002). As Shaw and Shiu stated in 2000, these construct have an impact on the consumer behaviour in an ethical context and have been neglected before. Figure 3: Modified theory of Planned behaviour (Shaw and Shiu, 2003) This model was validated through a structural equation modelling in order to predict the behaviour of organic consumer. The study explains 52% percent of the actions of them. The theory of planned behaviour gives the opportunity to have more insight that a classical socio-demographic analysis which usually defines the consumer profile (Shaw and Shiu, 2003). However some factors remain unexplained (48%) and authors proposed to look at values that would influence the behaviour in order to understand which ones are underlying the self-identity and ethical obligation. In another hand, the study emphasized that information and emotions are very important in the ethical decision making (Shaw and Clark, 1999, cited in Shaw and Shiu, 2003). In the next step, we will focus on the values that influence the consumer decision process in the context of organic food shopping. 3The relationship between Values and organic consumption 3. 1Presentation and meaning of values The concept of values is defined as what is behind attitudes and behaviour of an individual in the context of organisation, institutions and society (M. Rockeach, 1973). Personal values are known to explain consumers’ behaviour in very broad situations (Rockeach, 1973). Personal values are defined by Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, cited in Steenhaut, 2006) as â€Å"concept or beliefs about desirable end states or behaviours that transcend specific situations, guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events, and are ordered by relative importance†. Milton Rockeach (1973) developed a wide range of values which are divided into two categories: the instrumental and the terminal one. The 36 kinds of different values are presented in the exhibit 2: Instrumental and terminal values defined by M. Rockeach (1973, chap 3). Based on the work of M. Rockeach, Schwartz (1992, cited in Schwartz 2001) developed ten groups of values within a circular structure where the set of values is linked to each other. These ten groups of values are (Schwartz, 2001): -Self-direction -Stimulation -Achievement -Hedonism -Security -Benevolence -Universalism. -Conformity -Power -Tradition For the detailed meaning of each value, please refer to the exhibit 3: Definitions of type of values and items that represent and measure them (Schwartz, 2001). According to Schwartz (2001), values can be antagonist or congruent to each other. The circular pattern above shows the relationship between the ten groups. If two values are near, they tend to be congruent and if they are at the opposite, they are in conflict. Two axes resume the scheme: â€Å"Self-enhancement versus self transcendence opposes power and achievement to universalism and benevolence values. Openness to change to versus conservatism opposes the self-direction and stimulation values to security and conformity. † (Schwartz, 2001) Figure 4: The relationship among 10 motivational types of values. 3. 2Exploring the organic food consumption towards the Schwartz Value Survey In the aftermath of the result of the Theory of Planned Behaviour applied to organic food consumers, authors (Shaw et al. , 2005) investigated the pertinence of personal values in the same context. They used the Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) explained above. The result of the study can be summarizes in the following table: Table 3: Values that are important in an ethical point of view (from Shaw et al. 2005) Groups of ValuesSpecific items related to an ethical issues AchievementInfluential: people are drive by ethical obligation and want to influence others. SecurityHealthy: people want to eat and drink something that would protect or at least not harm themselves BenevolenceHelpful: want to have information for staff Honest: relationship based on trust UniversalismEquality and social justice: protection and welfare of all people Protecting the environment: preserving the nature. In addition to the SVS, authors defined three values that were important for choosing organic food: the capitalism as a negative one, consumer power and the animal welfare as positive one. In conclusion, values are not all meaningful and were inappropriate to study the ethical consumer. The most important finding is that the universalism values are the most relevant one in this specific context. A second study investigates the personal values combined with the Hunt-Vitell scheme as we will see now. 3. 3Relationship between personal values, ethical ideology and ethical beliefs. The Hunt-Vitell theory examines the judgment and the evaluation of an ethical problem of an individual. In this review of consumer ethics, Vitell (2003) emphasized that two major factors influence the evaluation of consumers: the idealism and the relativism. After a presentation about the model that will be used, we will discuss the purpose of the research paper. 3. 3. 1Hunt-Vitell theory of ethics Hunt and Vitell (1986) developed a model that’s studying the decision making process of an individual when (s)he is facing an ethical issue. When a person is in front an issue, (s)he has alternatives that he can chose. These â€Å"perceived alternatives† are evaluated thanks to two ways of analysis: the deontological and the teleological point of view. The deontological evaluation concentrates on the evaluation of the behaviour itself and compares the evaluation of alternatives in term of wrongness or rightness. This is directly related to personal norms and beliefs that a person develops. The teleological evaluation focuses on the consequences of the alternatives, and wants to state if it’s good or bad to take one decision. It contains four major constructs: -â€Å"the perceived consequences of each alternatives for various stakeholders, -The probability that each consequence will occur to each stakeholder, -The desirability or lack of desirability of each consequence, -The importance of each stakeholder group† (Hunt and Vitell, 1986, p. 9). These predictors sum up together, build the ethical judgment of an individual which is turned into intention to behave and into behaviour. Finally, we also have a predictor called â€Å"Situational Constraints† which is related to the macro-environment that could impact the behaviour (eg.opportunity). The concept established that four areas will impacted the perceived ethical issue, alternatives and consequences: -The cultural environment -The personal characteristics -The industry environment -The organizational environment. As we can see Hunt and Vitell theory is a global concept that occurs in businesses related situation, however if we remove the constructs related to a professional situation, this model is valid to study the consumer behaviour (Scott J. Vitell, 2003). Figure 1: the Hunt and Vitell theory without professional situational predictors (Hunt and Vitell, 1986). 3. 3. 2Findings about the relationship between personal values, ethical beliefs and ethical ideology The purpose of the research done by Steenhaut and Kenhove (2006) was to examine the influence and the impact of individual personal values priorities in the ethical judgment. To do so, they used the Hunt-Vitell theory combined with the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz, 1994, cited in Steenhaut and Kenhove, 2006). To measure the ethical beliefs, they use the Consumer Ethics Scale developed and validated by Vitell and Muncy (1992, cited in Vitell 2003). This scale looked at the reactions of consumers in front of ethical questionable actions (e. g. the reaction facing a passive benefit at the expense of others). The study found that idealism was determinant: more a consumer is attached to tradition, security and conformity; the more likely he is to act ethically. Furthermore, more a consumer is attached to universalism and benevolence (self-transcendent), the more is likely to act ethically. ? Two major types of values are important in an ethical context. The universalism and benevolence (self-transcendent) are the most important values in the context of organic food shopping. These findings can’t explain a lot of the behaviour (no more than 10% in Shaw et al. 2006), so we propose that more specific values related to food choices and ethical behaviour have to be studied. ?These findings give the opportunity to marketer to stress their communication actions on values that care for organic consumers. However, personal values are only an indirect linked to the consumer behaviour, and it is noticed in the both studies (Shaw et al. 2006 and Steenhaut and Kenhove, 2006) illustrated that personal values are not enough to predict ethical decision making process especially in the context of organic shopping. Even if self-transcendent values need to be studied in the case of organic food consumption, it’s just a set of explanation. These values are to general and are shared by people in a culture (Honkanen et al. 2006) so it appears that different ways to investigate the relationship between values and organic food consumption should be discussed. In the next part, we will investigate countrywide surveys that have explored the organic consumers. They take into account more variables like socio-demographic factors, beliefs and motives regarding organic consumption. 4Analyzing the organic consumers through their motivation and their socio-demographic factors 4. 1What are the main motivations towards organic consumption? 4. 1. 1The health motives Most of the researches done on organic consumers’ state that the most important factor that influences the decision to purchase is the health (Fagerli and Wandel 1999, Rozin et al. 1999, cited in Magnusson et al. 2003). Even if there are no clear evidence that organic food consumption is healthier than the conventional one, this factor is generally ranked at the top. 4. 1. 2The environmentally friendly consumers/ Concern for the environment is the other one most important motive to purchase organic products. In this case, people want to act in order to protect the environment, the nature and more generally the â€Å"eco-system†. These consumers also care about the pollution, the usage of non renewable resources and species preservations. (McEachern and McClean,2002). The animal welfare is also a motivation for environmentally friendly consumers. 4. 1. 3The food safety One of the reasons for seeking food safety (Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002) is related to recent food scandal like the BSE crisis in UK and all over Europe. People are looking for better quality and safety in order to protect themselves and that include organic products. Furthermore, the genetically modified food appears to be risky for a range of consumers , they would have positive thinking about organics compared to negative thoughts about GM (Rimal et al. 2005). 4. 1. 4The taste of the product Consumers often see organic products as more tasty compared to the conventional one because they are made in smaller quantities and wider varieties (Davis et al. 1995, cited in Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). Taste’s rating is high in country like UK and Germany (Meier-Ploeger and Woodward, 1999 cited in Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002). It seems that it is one of the top five factors of motivation for buying. Nevertheless it appears that there is no scientific evidence of the higher taste of organics and it seems that the beliefs of the consumers are divergent from the reality (Hutchins and Greenhalg, 1997, cited in Fotopoulos and Krystallis, 2002) 4. 1. 5The confidence on food industry The study of Squires et al. (2001) showed that less an individual is confident in the conventional food industry, the more likely he is to purchase organic food. That seems logical as if a consumer is scared about conventional food, we will seek for other alternatives including organics. As we stated that there are differences between consumer profiles and habits according to the country of origin and it would be interesting to emphasize these divergences. In the next part, consumers are studied according to their purchase behaviour (intensity) thanks to the combination of motivations with socio-demographics factors. In this way, we will discuss the behaviour on several countries and try to analyse if these factors are suuficient to well understand organic consumers. 4. 2The consumers’ profiles by countries 4. 2. 1. 1? in France According to the barometer made by CSA Agence Bio in 2006, 4 out 10 people consume organic products at least once a month and that 7% consume it every week. The motives of French consumers have evolved over time and are: -The protection of the environment -The health concern -The food safety -The taste and the quality. Furthermore, the availability of the products is seen as a moderator for 19% of the population. The willingness to pay more is well accepted as consumers think that is normal to pay more for higher quality standard products like organics. The products that are the more consumed are fresh, diary, and meat items. In this study, we don’t have any information about the socio-demographic profiles about consumers as well as their values. 4. 2. 1. 2? in Australia The research of Lea and Worsley (2005) scrutinize the relationship between personal values, beliefs and socio-demographics factors in order to understand the organic consumers in Australia. They use a 12 items scale about beliefs and organic food, a 14 items scale about the self-transcendence personal values adapted from Schwartz Value Survey and a 13 items scale (age, sex, income and education) to perform their questionnaire. The results are summarized in the following table: ValuesBeliefs and MotivesModeratorsDemo. Profile The values are positively related to organic purchases. They explain only 8% of the variance in the study-Health -Taste -environmentThe expense and the availability are the major moderators as expected. 50% mistrust the organic labelling systemMore women compare to men a likely to purchase. The other factors were not significant. The profile which is more likely to purchase is a female who strongly care about nature and equality. The study suggest that not only socio-demographic and personal values factors influence the decision to purchase and that future research should look the perceived consequences of the act of buying and other concrete attribute like taste or colour. 4. 2. 1. 3? in New-Zealand The purpose of the study developed by Squires et al. (2001) was to investigate the cross-influences of the health, environmentally concerns, and the confidence in conventional food in the consumption in New-Zealand and in Denmark. The findings about the New-Zealanders are shown in the following table: Beliefs and MotivesGeneral ProfileDemo. Profile -Health -Environment -Less trust in conventional in food ind. ? + towards organics. Personal eco-identity profile: worried person about the mankind and about environmental disaster would buy more. More female, older people and more rural and suburbs consumers consume organic products. 4. 2. 1. 4? in Denmark According to the same study (Squires et al. 2001), Danes’ profile of organic consumers are: Beliefs and MotivesGeneral ProfileDemo. Profile -Environment -Health -Mistrust in conventional in food ind. ? + towards organics. Green Self-perception profile: care about the environment and its protection at first. More female, older people and live in cities. The authors advise for further research to look at more motivation factors in order to give more insights about the organic consumers. 4. 2. 1. 5? in Sweden The research made in Sweden by Magnusson et al. (2003) deals only with the two main factors that influence the organic decision to purchase, the human health and the environment and their consequences on the consumer. They design a study based on four organic types of product with two different scales: -Questions about the frequency, attitudes, availability and beliefs about organic products. -Questions about the 17 possible consequences of buying organic food in general. They find out that the consequences of the act of buying are strongly related to environment and health well-being. The Swedish are motivated by health concern in the intention and frequency to purchase and young female tend to be the most likely to consume organic product. They also state that the environmental concern is an altruistic motive and that the health concern is more an egoistic motive (I want the well-being for my relatives and me at first). Swedish who have a strong green behaviour regarding recycling for instance, have more self-centred motives for buying organic food. It can be explain by the fact that recycling or green behaviour require less involvement are easier to do everyday.? This study emphasizes the need to analyse the organic consumer in a wider way with the inclusion of his/her behaviour regarding other â€Å"green† or â€Å"ethic† activities. With the inclusion of these variables, research would have the capacity to state if other green behaviours are related or have an impact on the consumption of organics. 4. 2. 1. 6? in Greece The Greek market is a novice one regarding the consumption of organic products, and Fotopoulos and Krystallis (2002) want give information about consumers in the country and investigate ways to cluster different consumers according to their behavio.